Divided in Partitions, United in Demands?

17–19 September 2026 | German Historical Institute Warsaw/University of Warsaw

From the mid-19th century onward, women’s associations of all nationalities began forming in the Habsburg, Prussian and Russian Empires. Polish women’s activism was particularly divided by the three partitions which also had their own imperial and national logics influencing the agency of women in the given territory. Political activism was affected by increasing female working power and expanding educational opportunities for women in the second half of the 19th century. Women following socialist and egalitarian ideas organized themselves just as bourgeois women did. Activism was influenced by factors such as class, religious affiliation and ethnicity. Some associations explicitly advocated for women’s suffrage, while others were mainly involved in charitable causes. Many associations were committed to improving educational opportunities and working conditions for women and girls. Some associations also explicitly campaigned for improvement in the areas of maternity protection, sexual reform or moral issues. This activism was often connected to processes of industrialization and migration of women to newly-built factories and growing cities, but women organized themselves also in rural areas.

To date, research on Polish and other women’s movements in the three partitioned areas has mainly focused on individual associations and activists. This research often remains within the context of national history, situated solely within the given imperial context. However, transnational, resp. transimperial perspectives focusing on the connections between Polish women’s associations or between Polish and other women’s movements (e.g. Austrian, German, Jewish, Ukrainian/Ruthenian) within and across the borders of the partitioned territories are rare.

Conference program

Organization: Paula Lange, Department of History and Michael Zok (GHI)